Hemingways The Sun Also Rises Essay -- Hemingway Sun Also Rises Essay

Hemingway's The Sun Also Rises The title and narrative focus of Ernest Hemingway’s The Sun Also Rises are rooted in a passage from the Ecclesiastes. In referencing this book of the Hebrew Bible, Hemingway resorts to aged scripture to unearth steadfast truths. His novel uses old-world beliefs to provide a solution for modern day issues, asserting the undeniable value of tradition. The applicability of the Ecclesiastes passage to Hemingway’s portrait of hopelessness in the post-Great War generation demonstrates that a reconnection with the natural world will reverse the unnatural consequences of a meaningless war and permit the reestablishment of hope within the following generation. The historicity and context of Hemingway’s opening reference to the Ecclesiastes demonstrates that an attachment to the natural world enables renewal. By reusing an ancient text to precede an interpretation of changes in 20th century expatriates, Hemingway illustrates the everlasting pertinence of its context. This effect establishes that textual traditions endure throughout time. To substantiate this inference, the context of Hemingway’s reference employs the likeminded rational that the overriding nature of the earth is everlasting simultaneous to alterations in generations of its inhabitants. To emphasize the enduring quality of the earth, the Ecclesiastes excerpt illustrates the interminably cyclical route traveled by the sun, wind, and rivers. In contrast to the linear quality of the Ecclesiastical observation that, â€Å"one generation passeth away, and another generation cometh† (p. 7), the earth retains its cycle, unaffected by the mortality of pas sing generations. By referencing a relationship between man and the earth that is define... ...xample of a reduced product of the war. His castration inhibits natural progression and, consequently, his attachment with nature. In Hemingway’s conclusion, Jake pursues the desire to reconnect with Brett, yet the effects of the war inhibit a return to tradition. Brett’s statement â€Å"we could have had such a damned good time together† (p. 251) illustrates the undeniable strain of Jake’s castration that prevents the realization of natural emotions. Nevertheless, the Ecclesiastes preference projects hope with, â€Å"all the rivers run into the sea; yet the sea is not full† (p. 7). This generation, harmed by the unnatural and purposeless war, has great obstacles in reconnecting with the natural world. Yet, subsequent generations will continue traditions begun before this unnatural intrusion. Works Cited: Hemingway, Ernest. The Sun Also Rises. New York: Scribner, 1926.

Mononucleosis Essay -- essays research papers

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mononucleosis is a viral disease that affects those usually between the age of ten and thirty-five, although a person at any age can get the disease. This disease found in mainly adolescents and adults seems to only occur in those who escaped the Epstein-Barr virus infection in childhood. It is also known as Glandular Fever, because it affects the lymph nodes in the neck, arm pits and groin. It can last anywhere from one to two weeks to six to eight weeks, some people suffer from mononucleosis for months at a time, but as an individual it depends on your personal recuperation time. Recuperation is a very slow process, which demands a lot of sleep and rest. Being sick for a length of time such as two weeks drains you of strength and energy and as well you lose a lot of your muscles. Balance can also become lost with such an illness, which requires time to develop. Causes   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mononucleosis is known to be caused by the Epstein_Barr virus (EBV), which can be passed by coughing, sneezing or saliva transfer, where it gets it’s popular name, the “kissing disease';. Much like chicken pox, most people don’t receive mononucleosis a second time in their life, but it can happen. Relapses can occur, but are fairly uncommon. Although you can receive the disease very easily, mononucleosis is not highly contagious, according to the majority of sources. Symptoms   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many symptoms associated with infectious mononucleosis, but the symptoms all depend on the individual. The more common symptoms are fatigue, sore throat, swelling of the lymph nodes and malaise. There is usually a change in the white cells and serum of the blood, but it can only be detected by a special test, known as the Mono Spot or the heterophile test. It is possible that the results of the test remain negative until a few weeks have passed after seeing some symptoms. It is very rare that the test results remain negative through out the duration of the disease. There are some more serious symptoms that may not be visible, such as the enlargement of the spleen and the inflammation of the liver. The enlargement of the spleen (see appendix) may not be detected by the doctor, but it is possible. It may cause a pain in the upper left abdominal located under the chest. If the ... ...ation period is between thirty and forty days, but it can vary depending on when the diagnosis occurs. It is possible to have the disease for several weeks and not even be aware that you have it. You can take acetaminophen or ibuprofen to control pain and fatigue, but avoid Aspirin, as it has been proven responsible for Rye’s Syndrome in children. Maintaining a healthy diet and lifestyle is one way to prevent many diseases and infections, but Mono can occur in anyone who has come in contact with the virus. Appendix Spleen The spleen is a fist-sized, spongy organ located behind the stomach (removed in this illustration), just under the diaphragm. Part of the lymphatic system, the spleen is composed of two types of tissue. White pulp produces lymphocytes, which release antibodies into the bloodstream to combat infection. More prominent is the red pulp, in which macrophages filter broken cells, parasites, bile pigments, and other useless substances from the blood. Iron from broken red blood cells is stored in the spleen for later use. Despite this variety of functions, an injured or diseased spleen can be removed in adults without great consequence. Microsoft Illustration

Collective Security Essay -- History, Greek

One of the most confusing and internationally argued topics that gathers so much debate from professors to journalist, journalist, to politicians, and politicians to generals, is known as collective security. The idea of collective security has been around for centuries dating back to the time of the Greeks, however the credit for creating the idea of modern collective security belongs to Woodrow Wilson who coined the theory a couple of years before the beginning of World War I. The theory basically forms the concept that each nations security no longer depends on it having to defend itself against attacks but rather use the joint security of other nations to deter any signs of aggression that can cause any instability among nations. It follows the Balance of Power Theory, but instead of using force to solve any indifferences to use any and all political actions before it gets out of hand and that no other member is more important than the other: all for one, and one for all (1). â€Å"â€Å"My conception of the League of Nations is just this, that it shall operate as the organized moral force of men throughout the world and that whenever or wherever wrong and aggression are planned or contemplated, this searching light of conscience will be turned upon them† (2) In an ideal world, the concept of collective security would be adopted since it would be beneficial for every nation. However, this is not an ideal world, and the theory has been highly criticized from start to finish. Many believe that if a threat were to occur from outside the party than the theory would be useless, (3) as that state is not bounded by any rules and obligations. Another problem consistent with the theory of collective theory is that not every nation may be... ...generality of the system (12), it creates the depiction of the group as a global security institution to be enduring and nonbiased. These seven fundamental aspects are the key to creating a safer world without the fears of terrorism, civil wars or even a world war constantly on our minds. As time goes on, new and old threats are clashing in a subtler yet more public way. Today we are facing the threat of terrorism, civil wars, genocide and nuclear wars. As stated earlier, if a threat where to occur from outside a member then the theory of collective security would be useless, terrorism is one of those outside threats. Nations are no longer dealing with another political party to discuss and resolve issues with but rather a small-scale size of people who are fighting for something they consider a just cause, whether it be the ETA, Al-Qaeda, or the Taliban.

Psychological Assessment Essay

Organisations worldwide are currently facing increasing competition, price pressures and slowergrowth rates and in order to be successful, for many organisations, this prompts the need to constantly change to survive. Having the right employee fit-for-purpose is imperative to the success of an organisation faced with such challenges. The use of psychological assessment is a key enabler for the appropriate selection and development of employees in the workplace to meet the constant changes in the internal and external economic and social environment (Bartram, 2004; Paterson &Uys, 2005). However, the nature and value of current day psychological assessment needs to be assessed as it faces many challenges, particularly in a South African context that is influenced by political injustices of the past. Psychological test use in South Africa currently faces many challenges including the adaptation of tests in a multicultural context, language, age and gender barriers and other measurement challenges (Foxcroft, 2004; Foxcroft, 2006). These challenges introduce criticism of the fairness and ethical practices of psychological assessment and highlight the need  for enhancing fairness in assessment and developing equitable and unbiased psychological tests (Foxcroft, 2011; Paterson & Uys, 2005). In order to respond to these challenges, it is important to gain an understanding of how psychological assessments have developed over the years so that meaningful changes can be made ((Foxcroft, Roodt & Abrahams, 2005). It is important to reflect on the history and development of psychological assessment as it helps explain how and why it is currently practiced, it allows for critical analysis of psychological assessment, identifying the strengths and weaknesses  of tests used today and provides lessons to be learned from the weaknesses and injustices of past assessment practices so that psychologists can develop new assessment tools and techniques and ensure fair and ethical social practices of psychological assessment (Gregory, 2000; Moerdyk, 2009). The perceptions of psychological assessment being unfair and biased are slowly changing as improvements are made in the development of tests and in South Africa this is closely linked to the developments and changes in legislation and the professional bodies that govern the control and use of  psychological assessments (Mauer, 2000; Paterson & Uys, 2005). The objective of this discussion is to evaluate the nature and value of psychological assessment practices in the South African work context by critically reflecting on the historical developments that have shaped and influenced current psychological assessment, focusing onhow test use have been transformed by legislation, government and society and the challenges that exist for fair and unbiased psychological assessment in South Africa. Finally, the ways in which fairness and bias in testing is currently being addressed and the steps in developing further ethical practices of  psychological assessment will be discussed. This discussion will also include an overview of psychological assessment STUDENT NO: 44674481 4 and clarification of central concepts such as psychometrics, testing, measurement and evaluation, fairness and bias. 1. WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT? 1. 1. DEFINING PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Foxcroft & Roodt (2005, p. 4), define psychological assessment as a â€Å"†¦ process-oriented activity aimed at gathering a wide array of information by using assessment measures (tests) and information from many other sources.. † in order to make inferences about human behaviour. Shepard & Spalding (as cited in Setshedi, 2008) note that psychological assessments make use of standardised instruments, which, combined with other sources of information, are evaluated to inform some intervention. 1. 2. THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT AND RELATED TERMS Psychological assessment refers to the overall multidimensional process that uses tools (tests) and techniques for measurement and evaluation of human behaviour (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychological assessment can be distinguished from some related terms commonly used, such as, psychometrics, testing, psychometric testing,  measurement and evaluation. 1. 2. 1. Measurement and Assessment Measurement refers to the ‘how much’ in an assessment. When doing an assessment, psychologists use measurement to ascribe values or numbers to a phenomenon against certain criteria or standardized norms, following predefined rules (Moerdyk, 2009). Measurement therefore helps in gathering information to add to the holistic assessment of a phenomenon. 1. 2. 2. Evaluation and Assessment Evaluation refers to â€Å"†¦interpreting or attaching a judgemental value to an assessment†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Moerdyk, 2009, p. 4). In other  words, evaluation refers to reaching conclusions about the measurement outcomes (Moerdyk, 2009). Thus evaluation forms part of the process of the overall assessment. STUDENT NO: 44674481 5 1. 2. 3. Psychometrics and Assessment Psychometrics is the subfield of psychology that refers to the use of scientific methods, theory and techniques used in psychological measurement (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). Psychologists base their assessments on these scientific ways of measurement in an attempt to learn more about or predict behaviour. Thus psychological assessment is informed by the study of Psychometrics (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). 1. 2. 4. Testing and Assessment Testing refers to the use of a tool (for example, psychometric tests, scales, or instruments) to inform decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009; Patterson & Uys, 2005). Tests are not used in isolation but as part of the bigger process of assessment in order to make fair and informed decisions. Patterson & Uys (2005) argue that assessment is the overall process which includes testing, but more than testing, it implies the holistic evaluation based on test results and other information from other assessment methods. 1. 2. 5. Psychometric Testing and Assessment. Psychometric testing refers to testing based on psychometric theory and practices and is mainly used in industries for recruitment, selection and counselling purposes (Gregory, 2000). According to van der Merwe (2002), psychometric testing can be a useful tool in making decisions about management of employees and if used appropriately with insight and sensitivity it can become one of the most effective ways in predicting behavior that is not surfaced during screening interviews. In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use  of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 1. 3. THE USE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Psychologists use techniques and tools in assessment in attempts to gain a better understanding of human behaviour, to describe certain phenomenon, as well as topredict future behaviour. Psychological assessments are also used to identify and plan interventions to change behaviour and in decision making (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Some of the main areas of assessment are cognitive, behavioural and personality assessment (Moerdyk, 2009). 1. 4. THE VALUE OF PSYCHOLIGICAL ASSESSMENT IN INDUSTRY Organisations benefit from psychological assessments as it aids in making clear and informed decisions in managing STUDENT NO: 44674481 6 human resources. Bartram (2004, p. 238) highlights the value of assessments in personnel selection enabling â€Å"†¦organisations to act both tactically and strategically to increase their effectiveness†. Psychometric tests make it possible for organisations to measure attributes that can’t easily be assessed at face value but that may be crucial in job performance, such as personality and leadership assessments (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments are also used to measure work performance to identify training needs (Moerdyk, 2009), management and leadership assessments to inform development plans (Bartram, 2004), as well as assessments to improve employee wellness (Moerdyk, 2009). Assessments can also inform career counselling needs, career and organisational development plans, and research (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. FAIRNESS AND BIAS IN SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT From the above it is clear that there is a need for psychological assessments in the workplace for organisations and individuals to benefit from human resource management. However psychological assessment practices over the years have drawn attention to bias in testing and fairness and ethical issues in assessment. The developments of psychological testing and assessment practices in South Africa will be further discussed to show how historically assessments have been unfair and bias and how this has been addressed in current practices. First it is important to clarify what is meant by fairness and bias in testing and assessment. 2. 1. THE CONCEPT OF FAIRNESS AND BIAS Bias can be defined as the â€Å"systemic error in measurement or research that affects one group (e. g. race, age, and  gender) more than another† (Moerdyk, p. 261). In the work context this means that the psychometric tests that are administered to people need to measure what it’s supposed to measure and it needs to be consistent and systematic in measurement across different groups. Bias in testing can be controlled through the use of statistical procedures or other objective measures (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005; Moerdyk, 2009). Fairness refers to the equitable nature of the psychological assessment processes and procedures and the lack of bias in testing methods and interpretation. Fairness is both subjective and contextual as can be seen in South Africa where  the use of affirmative action is used in human resource practices to address discrimination in past assessment practices. To be fair to previously disadvantaged groups it has become necessary to select and develop employees that score lower on tests. This raises the debate of whether the previously advantaged groups are now being unfairly treated. There is the option of treating both groups fairly, however it does not resolve the unfair, bias and discriminatory practices of the past (Moerdyk, 2009). STUDENT NO: 44674481 7 Both fairness and bias are important in psychological assessment in South Africa and are governed and regulated at the  individual (practitioner) level, through professional bodies as well as through legislation. Fairness and bias in assessment has been a challenge in South Africa and has been shaped and influenced particularly by the political ideologies through time. These challenges in fair and unbiased testing and the development of psychological test methods inSouth Africa will now be further explored. 2. 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT PRACTICES IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 2. 1. Early Use (Pre-Apartheid Era) of Psychological Assessments The early developments of psychological assessments in South Africa were introduced in the twentieth century and  followed closely with the developments internationally (Painter & Terre Blanche, 2004). The psychological tests that were introduced at the time in the country were largely influenced by the political context (Foxcroft et al, 2005). South Africa was a British colony and thus the psychological tests used were influenced by the political ideologies of the British rule and focused on assisting in the regulation of differential treatment (Louw, 2002). Most of the tests that were administered were for whites only and were based on either adaptations of international tests (e. g. Stanford-Binet adaptation) or were  developed specifically for use in South Africa (e. g. South African Group Test). Other examples include the study by Fick, who measured intellectual abilities across different race groups using tests that was standardized for whites and concluded that whites had superior intellect. This study influenced the Bantu Education system but the limitations of the study were also highly criticised (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Thus in this era of British colonial rule, tests in South Africa were biased, discriminatory against other races and psychological assessments ignored the influence of other social factors on  test performance such as poverty, language, culture, etc. (Claassen, 1997; Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw, 2002). 2. 2. 2. Development of Tests During the Apartheid Era In the early 1900s the political rule in South Africa was based on laws of segregation (apartheid) which believed that blacks and whites were different and should be treated differently (Claassen, 1997; Louw & van Hoorn,1997). Thus, most of the tests that were used supported the regulation of legislature that encouraged such thinking (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). Between the two world wars, research started to focus on understanding the â€Å"Native† and psychology aimed to support the government and apartheid rule (Louw & van Hoorn, 1997). After the Second World War, assessments focused on suitable placements of blacks in the workplace, and tests such as the General Adaptability STUDENT NO: 44674481 8 Battery (GAB) were used. In this era, tests were used without adapting to South African norms, on whites, such as the Otis Mental Ability Test (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Between the 1960’s and 1990’s institutes were formed (National Institute for Personnel Research, Institute for Psychological and Edumetric Research) as well as changes in legislation were made to regulate the administration of  psychological assessments. The Health Professions Act 56 of 1974 regulated that only psychologists were allowed to administer psychological assessments. Radical changes in the socio-political situation started in the 1980’s and apartheid rules started to soften. Different races started to compete for positions in the workplace and this raised concerns about the test measures that were being used. Tests such as the General Scholastic Aptitude Test (GSAT), the Ability Processing of Information and Learning Battery (APIL-B) and the Pencil and Paper Games were introduced to address these concerns. The Pencil and PaperGames was made available in all 11 languages in South Africa to address bias and application in a multicultural context. These tests however we criticised as it was based on inappropriate norms. As the apartheid regime came to an end, psychological assessment was held under much scepticism and negative perceptions were developed because of the discriminatory nature and use of tests at that time (Foxcroft et al, 2005; Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 2. 3. Development of Tests in Post Apartheid Era After the abolition of the apartheid era, South Africa became a country based on democracy and radical changes were  made in political policy and legislation to address the wrongs of the past (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Psychological assessment was held under much criticism and the changes in constitution and legislation lead to a major shift in the approach of testing in South Africa. Some of the issues that were highlighted in the practices of testing during the apartheid era were the discriminatory use of tests, the lack of applicability in a multicultural context creating bias, as well as other ethical issues such as the use of inappropriate norms and standards (Foxcroft et al, 2005). The changes in politics will now be  further discussed to show how it addressed the above issues and regulates fair, ethical and unbiased assessments in current society. 2. 3. ENHANCING FAIRNESS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT IN SOUTH AFRICA 2. 3. 1. Changes in Constitution Chapter 2 of the South African Constitution addresses the Bill of Rights, which calls for democracy based on dignity, equality and freedom. Furthermore, Section 9 of the Bill of Rights states that no persons may be subject to unfair STUDENT NO: 44674481 9 discrimination or unfairly discriminate unto others (Mauer, 2000). This means that no tests may be used to discriminate  against any individual, group or institution and called for fair assessment approaches. Psychological assessments therefore are required to aim to eliminate any bias in testing. Thus a dynamic and multicultural assessment approach is necessary which encourages the development of culture-specific and culture-informed psychological practices for the various cultural groups in South Africa (Van de Vijver & Rothman, 2004). 2. 3. 2. The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) The Labour Relations Act (66 of 1995) (LRA) protects individuals against unfair labour practices and discrimination in the  workplace (Mauer, 2000). This has an impact on the ethical considerations of organisations when employing psychological assessments. Joiner (2000) provides guidelines for fair and ethical practices in psychological assessment which ensures that psychologists take responsibility in assessments protecting the rights of individuals, treating individuals fairly, and not misusing the information from test results. Both the constitution and LRA address unfair discrimination and allow for fair discrimination if it can be proven that the discrimination is fair. 2. 3. 3. The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) The Employment Equity Act (55 of 1998) (EEA) enforces fair, unbiased and equitable practices in psychological testing by regulating the requirements of tests. The Act clearly states that psychological testing and other forms of assessment is prohibited unless it can be scientifically proven to be valid and reliable, can be applied fairly and is unbiased to any employee or group. The impacts of this act means that psychological tests need to be cross-culturally applicable (Foxcroft et al, 2005). Foxcroft (2004) highlights the need for more tests to be developed in South Africa that can be used  in a multicultural context. Organisations need to take cognisance of the above legislation that regulates fair and unbiased practices of assessment and should aim to practice testing ethically by ensuring that the rights of individuals are protected, the processes of assessment is fair, confidentiality of individuals is protected, individuals are given feedback to assessments, and the outcomes of assessment is not harmful to the individuals (Moerdyk, 2009). In line with the LRA the EEA also allows for fair discrimination in employment, specifically affirmative action if used in  accordance with the Act. It also allows for fair discrimination in employment based on criteria that are inherent to the job which means that the assessment tools used to assess individuals need to assess evidence of these criteria. 2. 3. 4. Professional Bodies Other bodies such as the Health Professions Council of South Africa (HPCSA), the Professional Board of Psychology STUDENT NO: 44674481 10 and the Board for Personnel Practitioners govern the practice of psychological assessment in South Africa to ensure fair and ethical approaches in psychology (Moerdyk, 2009; Wassenaar, 1998). Psychological tests can only be administered by individuals professionally registered with the HPCSA, which provides professional guidance and advice for the use of psychological assessments (form 208). The HPCSA regulates the training of professionals, the development of psychological tests and the use of psychological tests. 2. 4. ENHANCING THE DEVELOPMENT OF FAIR AND UNBIASED ASSESSMENT MEASURES 2. 4. 1. Steps in Test Development To address some of the issues in fairness and bias in testing, Foxcroft (2004) has identified some critical steps in developing tests, particularly for a multicultural context. These include: (a) Defining the purpose of the test and the intended target population This involves outlining what is being tested, how the outcomes of the tests will be used and specifying that the test can be used in a multicultural setting. This implies that the test developer needs to identify aspects of the constructs that are common and unique across the groups being tested. The test developer should also identify the characteristics of the target population (such as educational status) and also identify the characteristics that may impact on test performance  (such as language) (Foxcroft, 2004). One of the major challenges in assessment in South Africa at the moment is language. In South Africa there are eleven official languages, and although English is the commonly accepted business language, psychologists need to ensure that in administering tests language is not a barrier in test performance. Translation of tests into different language is complex and makes the validity of constructs vulnerable (Foxcroft, 2006). (b) Defining the construct and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing  This step refers to identifying the specific observable measures that will be tested. This can be derived from a job analysis which highlights the key knowledge, skills, abilities and other attributes required to perform a job successfully. It is important in a multicultural test that the norms and values across the different cultural groups for a specific construct are identified upfront so as to eliminate the construct bias. The constructs being measured need to also be of value and have meaning to the test user. Language is often a barrier in the meaning of a construct across multicultural groups and  research also indicates that in South Africa some groups attach political meanings to some constructs which can impact on test performance. Developing the content and specifications of the test is dependent on the methods used to develop the test, which can be theory-based (this means that the theory used needs to be applicable in a multicultural context), empirical (this implies that for a multicultural context the criterion being measured need to only discriminate on the specific criterion and not on other variables) or criterion-referenced (this implies that the development of the cross  STUDENT NO: 44674481 11 cultural criterion need to be developed by a panel representing the different cultural groups). The different specifications and dimensions of tests should then be tabulated (Foxcroft, 2004). (c) Choosing the test format and item format, specifying the administration and scoring methods In choosing the best method to present a test it is important that the tools (paper vs. computer), the format in which it is presented (multiple choice, diagrams, etc) and the response methods (verbal, written, etc) take into account the capability and familiarity across the different cultural groups. The administration and the scoring methods should also be fair across cultural groups (Foxcroft, 2004). Moerdyk (2009) identifies seven key steps in test development. The first step conceptualising involves identifying what phenomenon is trying to be understood. The second step is identifying the observable measures of the phenomenon (operationalising). The third step involves quantifying the observable measures. This requires content validity, distracters and a response set. The next step involves a pilot session of the test. By administering the test to a pilot group that is a  representation of the final test group, the opportunities for improving the test can be identified. Once the test is administered to the pilot group the next step is to conduct an item analysis and the correlation of items identified. The item analysis can then be used to revise the test and compile the final test (what is known as validity shrinking). The last step is to develop a set of norms that can be used to measure the responses against for interpretation (Moerdyk, 2009). Lastly, the test needs to be published and the HPCSA provides guidelines for test development to ensure fair and ethical  standards are met. De beer (2006), research findings indicate that for a South African multicultural and multilingual context the need for dynamic assessment is important as it accounts for differences across cultural groups as well as identify opportunities for further development. Other issues that are challenging to psychologists are the influence of other factors such as age, gender, socio-economic status, environment and cultural differences on test performance (Moerdyk, 2009). Some considerations for the future of assessment in South Africa are the use of technology advances in testing (artificialintelligence), the need to develop more culture specific tests, and the need for fair and ethical practices of psychometric testing (Moerdyk, 2009). 2. 4. 2. Core Characteristics of psychometric test Some of the core characteristics that psychometric tests should adhere to can be summarized as follows: ? It is based on standardized procedures and methods of assessment; ? It makes use of norms, comparing individuals performance against a category or norm group; ? It is scientifically proven to be valid (i. e. , it measures what it says), and reliable (the consistency and accuracy of  STUDENT NO: 44674481 12 measuring instruments); ? It can be applied in various institutions (health, education, occupation, etc. ) and the measures can be cross- culturally adapted with minimal test bias; ? It can be fairly administered to all individuals groups and organisations (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2005). In South Africa psychometric testing is regulated by the Employee Equity Act of 1998 which prohibits the use of psychometric tests or assessments unless it proves to be scientifically valid and reliable, is fair and free from bias (Foxcroft et al, 2005). 3. CONCLUSION From the above discussion it can be concluded that an understanding of the developments of psychological assessment is imperative to understanding the value in current society and in highlighting aspects to focus on change. In the past, psychological tests developed were used internationally in psychological assessments despite the differences in culture and language. This produced issues of bias and unfairness, as can be seen in misuse of assessments in the apartheid era in South Africa (Foxcroft et al, 2005). For a long time psychological tests in South Africa were perceived as unfair and  unjust (Sehlapelo & Terre Blanche, 1996). However, with the political changes in government and legislature ( such as the Employment Equity Act 1998) , the introduction of governing bodies (such as HPCSA) and the changes in ideologies (a move toward a dynamic approach in assessment), psychological assessment has progressed toward a more fair and ethical practice that is slowly changing these perceptions (Mauer, 2000). Challenges still do exist, however, in producing tests that can be applied in such a diverse country that has 11 official languages, and a vast number of cultural groups as  well as moving toward testing using the advances in technology. STUDENT NO: 44674481 13 4. REFERENCES Bartram, D. (2004). Assessment in organisations. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 53(2), 237-259. Claassen, N. C. W. (1997). Cultural differences, politics and test bias in South Africa. European Review of Applied Psychology, 4th trimester, 47(4), 297-307. De Beer, M. (2006). Dynamic testing: practical solutions to some concerns. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32(4), 8- 14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2004). Planning a psychological test in the multicultural South African context. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32 (4), 8-14. Foxcroft, C. D. (2006). Critically examining language bias in the South African adaptation of the WAIS-III. South African Journal of Industrial Psychology, 32, p. 97-102. Foxcroft, C. D. (2011). Ethical issues related to psychological testing in Africa: What I have learned (so far). Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2(2). Retrieved 10 April 2014 from the World Wide Web: http://dx. doi. org/10. 9707/2307-0919. 1022 Foxcroft, C. , Roodt, G. & Abrahams, F. (2005). Psychological assessment: a brief retrospective overview. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds.), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 8-23). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Foxcroft, C. , & Roodt, G. (2005). An overview of assessment: definition and scope. In Foxcroft, C. & Roodt, G. (Eds. ), An introduction to psychological assessment in the South African context (2nd ed. , pp. 3-7). Cape Town: Oxford University Press. Gregory, R. J. (2000). Psychological testing: History, principles and application (3rd ed. ). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Joiner, D. A. (2000). Guidelines and ethical considerations for assessment center operations. Public Personnel  Management, 29(3), 315-331. STUDENT NO: 44674481 14 Louw, J. (2002). Psychology, history and society. South African Journal of Psychology, 32(1), 1-8. Louw, J. & van Hoorn, W. (1997). Psychology, conflict, and peace in South Africa: Historical notes. Journal of Peace Psychology, 3(3), 233-243. Mauer, K. F. (2000). Psychological test use in South Africa. Retrieved November 24, 2003 from the World Wide Web : http. //sunsite. wits. ac. za/conference/psychology/pai1 Moerdyk, A. (2009). The principles and practices of psychological assessment. Pretoria: Van Schaik. Painter, D. & Terre Blanche, M. (2004). Critical psychology in South Africa: Looking back and looking forwards. Draft of a paper written for the Greek journal Utopia, 24 February. Retrieved on 15 May, 2014, from http://www. criticalmethods. org/collab/critpsy. htm Patterson, H & Uys, K. (2005). Critical issues in psychological test use in the South African workplace. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 31(3), 12-22. Sehlapelo, M. & Terre Blanche, M. (1996). Psychometric testing in South Africa: Views from above and below. Psychology in Society, 21, 49-59. Setshedi, M. J. (2008). Investigating the use of psychological assessment in South African schools. Unpublished Masters Dissertation. Johannesburg: University of Witwatersrand. Retrieved 10 April 2012 from the World Wide Web: http://wiredspace. wits. ac. za/handle/10539/5927. Van de Vijver, A. J. R. & Rothmann, I. (2004). Assessment in multicultural groups: the South African case. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 30(4), 1-7. Van der Merwe, R. P. (2002). Psychometric testing and human resource management. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology, 28(2), 77-86. Wassenaar, D. R. (1998). A history of ethical codes in South African psychology: an insider‘s view. South African Journal  of Psychology, 28(3), 135-145. STUDENT NO: 44674481 15 5. SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS 5. 1 70%. I feel I have understood the question and logic to the assignment. I have best understood the value of psychological assessment and the developments in South Africa and I feel I need to improve on how fairness can be enhanced in testing. 5. 2 Foxcraft & Roodt (2009) was most useful. I have used other journal articles for reference and examples such as other studies by by Foxcroft, as well as some internet references (example dissertation on the use of psychological assessment). 5. 3. 2 months, approximately 1-2 hours daily 5. 4. It is relevant in the working context as it provides an appreciation and understanding of the value of psychological assessment as well as creates awareness of the challenges and opportunities for fairness and ethical practices in assessment 5. 5. Yes. It provides guidelines on how tests should be used, where it should be used, what aspects to consider in test development, what are the governance systems in place for fair and ethical testing, what challenges and opportunities exist for further development. 5. 6. I would like to improve my knowledge in referencing techniques, logical and systematic application of work. I would like to improve on my knowledge of dynamic testing by reading more literature. 5. 7. The quality of material is very good, it provides clear guidelines; gives one the opportunity to reflect on overall concepts and to assess quality of work. 5. 8. Yes the learning outcomes and assessment criteria was helpful in planning the assignment 5. 9. Yes the lecturer provided timeous guidelines and support on how to answer the questions as well as the important aspects to be covered in this learning outcome.

Aztec and City

Jarrett Barber Mr. Slaughter 11/16/12 Tenochtitlan Tenochtitlan was the main city and capital of the Aztec empire. The city was founded in 1325 when the Aztec emperor told some of his tribes to look for a spot for their new capital city. He told them that the spot for the city would be found when they saw an eagle eating a snake on top of a cactus. This symbol is now on the Mexican coat of arms and on the Mexican flag (King). The tribes wondered around in what is now present day Mexico City, looking for this strange site. They finally came to the spot where they saw the scene.It happened on a small island in the middle of Lake Texacco. All of the surrounding area of the lake was all swamp land, but because they saw the eagle there, that’s where the city was to be built. The construction of Tenochtitlan took place under the rule of four different Aztec kings. They laid out the construction plans for the city on a grid, making the building of the city much easier and run smoothe r. The city was linked to the mainland by three raised causeways; the three different causeways pointed north, west, and south.The raised causeways had bridges in the middle of them to allow canoes and other traffic underneath; the bridges could also be raised up in case of an attack. The city had two aqueducts that were 2. 5 miles long to supply fresh water from the springs of Chapultepec, though most of this water was used for bathing, washing dishes, and other various reasons (Stearns). Most of the Tenochtitlan population bathed twice every day, but ruler Montezuma was rumored to bathe as many as 4 times a day.The people preferred their drinking water from the nearby mountain springs, as it was much cleaner. When it was at its biggest point, Tenochtitlan covered a little more than five square miles. And at the height of its existence, Tenochtitlan’s population was approximately 150,000 people (closely comparable to the size of the population of the city of Cordoba). Tenoch titlan was the largest city in Mesoamerica, but also one of the largest in the world (Tenochtitlan). The only two cities larger than this at the time were Paris and Constantinople which had populations of 300,000.The language of the city was Nahuatl, it was spoken throughout the Aztec empire. The people also practiced Aztec religion, the religion consisted of human sacrifice and religious festivals. Gods of different elements were worshiped and given sacrifices. Human sacrifices were given to the sun god in fear that the sun might not rise the next morning (Stearns). Templo Mayor was the largest temple in Tenochtitlan, it was rebuilt 6 different times (King). The temple first went under construction in 1325, in succession with the rest of the city.Each time it was rebuilt, it grew slightly larger. The temple was dedicated to 2 different gods,  Tlaloc, god of rain and agriculture, and Huitzilopochtli, god of war. Each god had its own separate temple at the top. In 1427 Aztec empero r Ahuitzotl sacrificed tens of thousands of people in the span of 4 days in honor of the temple.. The organization of the city was that of a city-state, with an organized central region. Agriculture was a thriving practice in Tenochtitlan. Because there was no room for it in the city, chinampas were developed.Chinampas were fields created on floating platforms on the lake’s surface. Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes visited the city in 1519 and was amazed. Cortes and his men were in awe at the sight of the city. They were greeted by the Aztecs with gifts and food. Despite the hospitality, Cortes challenged the Aztecs and took emperor Montezuma hostage. The Aztecs declared war and drove the Spaniards out in 1520. Cortes led later attacks on the city but most of the population was wiped by diseases that the Spaniards had brought.The city finally fell to the Spaniards in 1521. The city was demolished and rebuilt to what is now Mexico City. There are still ruins of Tenochtitlan that can still be seen today in central Mexico City. Works Cited Stearns, Peter et al. World Civilizations. 3rd ed. New York. Pearson Longman, 2000. â€Å"Tenochtitlan. † Retrieved from https://www. courses. psu. edu/anth/anth008_cmg149/aten. html King, Heidi. â€Å"Tenochtitlan†. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. (October 2004) Retrieved from http://www. metmuseum. org/toah/hd/teno_1/hd_teno_1. htm (October 2004)

Calvin’s Ideas About the Church Organisation Essay

There are many factors which are important to examine in determining the main reason for the success of the Genevan Reformation, for example Calvin’s ideas about the Church organisation and Calvin’s leadership and personal impact, the previous exposure of Geneva to Protestantism and Calvin’s ability to overcome his opponents. Calvin himself placed a strong emphasis on The Ecclesiastical Ordinances, differing from Luther who left organization to the Princes. As it was vital to him, in 1541 Calvin drafted an ecclesiastical constitution for Geneva which should be accepted in return for him taking on responsibility for the spiritual welfare of the city. With some modifications it was approved by the political authorities and set in place a Calvinist Church order. Calvin believed there must be a strict structure to preach the Word and it consisted of four orders of ministers: Pastors to teach, preach, administer the Word and publicly and privately ‘admonish’ people’s conduct, Doctors to teach true doctrines and act as teachers in schools, Deacons to care for the poor, needy and sick who were chosen by the Little Council and finally the Elders who were to ‘supervise every person’s conduct and to warn backsliders and those of a disorderly life’; 12 lay people from different parts of the city. Those who failed to comply with Calvin’s strict standards could be punished by the Calvinist court. The Consistories were independent of civil courts and secular authorities. It was hard to argue with this model as it was based on the scriptures and was widely copied. After 1555 his authority was unchallenged and the Little Council even adopted practices of the Grabeau. The Ordinances indoctrinated children in a sense; soon there was a generation who knew nothing but his teachings. However, this links to the previous exposure of Geneva to Protestantism, as Calvin offered an appealing solution in a time of religious crisis in the country. There were a small number of Genevan Reformers in the 1520s such as Farel and Viret. Both Lutheran and Zwinglian reformations were making great progress and the city of Berne had also carried out a reformation in 1528. Despite this, the Council could not make a decision and churches were ransacked, masses suspended and the cathedral clergy lef t. Three months later there was a feeling of apathy as to what would replace the broken Catholic Church. Calvin came to Geneva offereing a truly reformed faith that was well ordered and supported authority. This appealed to many and he offered an alternative to Lutheranism which he felt had not ‘gone far enough’. This links to the next point, as Calvin himself was key in asserting authority through fear and his own charisma in order to gain support, for example as he was cunningly able to use the current situation in Geneva to manipulate the Council into seeing his ideas as desirable and accepting many of his radical proposals. In many ways Calvin should have been a poor leader; he was an intense scholar and mostly in poor health but he inspired admiration rather than affection. Calvin himself is quoted to have said that the citizens of Berne ‘have always feared rather than loved me’. His single-minded, totally focused approach partly explains his success- also as a theologian and debater many suggested there was no equal. Finally, this links into the next factor that Calvin’s opposition was suppressed, so in most aspects there was no equal contestant, although it was a 14-year struggle. Calvin experienced both religious and political/social opposition. In 1542 Sebastian Castellio who was appointed as head of the Genevan college by Calvin claimed that a book in the Old Testament was in fact an erotic poem which should not be included in the scriptures; which Calvin felt this was an attack on. Castellio left Geneva and was expelled on his return by the Syndic due to Calvin’s convincing. The Michael Servitus affair is also a strong example of Calvin’s effective suppression of religious opposition. He was a Spanish theologian who adopted extreme views and became offended when others did not accept them, eg. he condemned infant baptism and the Doctrine of the Trinity. He was suspected of heresy so went undercover in Vienna where he wrote a book and sent a copy to Calvin. Calvin recognized his work and sent authorities to where he was, but he escaped. Although he later turned up to one of Calvin’s sermons and was then burned at the stake. Diarmaid MacCulloch claims that many people opposed Calvin because they disagreed with his simple laws against e.g. dancing and singing. Some opposition was on the basic principle of who was in charge, the civil government was run by aristocrats and the Church by highly educated French elite so battles were always over who would decide punishments for wrongdoers. The Libertines were constantly called before the Consistory for bad conduct eg. dancing, making obscene gestures and gambling etc. Perrin was part of the Syndic however when he began to complain and demand more power, therefore Syndics began to support Calvin against him. The Libertines were removed from all Genevan councils and fled or were tortured/executed. To conclude, I think that a number of factors were important in the success of the Genevan Reformation, and Calvin’s presence underpins all of them. Although Calvin has been accused of a ruthless approach I believe that his success in suppressing opposition was vital the Reformation as it disallowed powerful opposition from crushing Genevan efforts. I then think that the structure of the Church under Calvin was the next important as many found it hard to fault this approach and it became widely used. Calvin personally was important in the Reformation as it was key that he was able to appeal to or incite fear in people in order to achieve his aims, but this ties in with his ability to suppress opposition. Lastly then, although I found the situation in Geneva and its exposure to Protestant ideas again vital, there were many key factors and it would be wrong to suggest that none played any role in the spread and success of Protestantism in Geneva.

In-Depth Psychoanalysis Essay

The formation and maintenance of the psychoanalysis frame is important for the function of setting up an ideal emotional relationship with a patient. It is the ability to know how to help the patient by deducing the emotional projections and barriers that are present within the patient’s psyche (Bishop, 1989). The concept of psychic reality embraces the image of the external world, which accommodates the internal world in an individual that is composed of masculine and feminine energies. It is important for psychoanalysts to comprehend this existing relationship between the external and internal world so that the patient will not be confused in understanding his or her situation (Bishop, 1989). In psychoanalysis, both analyst and patient are expected to merge the inner and outer subjectivity of the patient. The analyst’s main role is to figure out what is the scope of that subjectivity and form a suitable analysis of it that will be able to help both of them to find a solution. The analyst should strive to become a part of the patient’s illness in order to arrive at a solution. This is called Transference which is a central element to psychoanalysis (Bishop, 1989). The door to the past is opened through transference as it seeks to make sense of the present. Objectivity has no place in psychoanalysis because the process is derived from the complexities found within the patient’s psyche. An analyst must be able to honor the patient’s projections of reality for it is there that the solution may be brought to light (Bishop, 1989). A conceptual frame exists in the process of psychoanalysis in which the mode of transference is indicative of the projections offered by both the patient and the analyst. It is imperative that an analyst maintains the frame by respecting the patient’s time as it is giving the patient an opportunity to handle his or her own problems (Bishop, 1989). While both the analyst and the patient remain independent, mental interpenetration should be experienced by both parties through the combined efforts of projective identification. It is a process that permits bonding with the patient, alluding to a psychic intercourse. In psychotherapy, the psychotherapist is expected to psychically bond with the patient as a marital partner that nurses the wounded child found within the patient (Bishop, 1989). Psychological elements within the frame emphasizes on three things: Neutrality, anonymity and avoidance of extra-analytic contact. The first element, neutrality, considers a behavior in which the analyst withholds external manifestations of judgment to keep things professional and the psychoanalytic process unaffected. The second element deals with anonymity, which exhibits separation of an analyst’s personal life from the profession. It is obscuring personal attributes and judgment from a patient, except if it is considered beneficial to the situation at hand. The last element, avoidance of extra-analytic contact, upholds the professionalism of the psychoanalyst by deciding to evade places where patients would most likely be. This will set limitations between analyst and patient by not encouraging further contact between the two parties aside from those established within the bounds of the psychoanalysis sessions (Bishop, 1989). Along with these elements, silence contributes a great deal toward intervention in psycho-analytic treatment. It promotes an attitude toward to a gestational state where the individual could combine thoughts and feelings. The space in the room should be filled with the patient’s mind and not the therapists’ knowledge. Silence allows the patient to center on what is inside rather than what is outside. An analyst should take care not to interfere with this process as language may affect its course (Bishop, 1989). Another thing an analyst should keep in mind is interpreting the silence by giving importance to the transference process, exposing the unconscious mind. The purpose of unraveling such consciousness is to project the instinctual or the here and now. Transference brings rise to object relations connected with the patient’s anxieties toward unconsciousness (Bishop, 1989). For an analyst to be more attuned toward the needs of the patient, derivatives must be presented in order to clarify what was obtained from the transference. It is keeping the exchange route open and flowing. The frame of psychoanalysis should be preserved in such a way that it allows room for both the patient and the analyst to bond together by figuring out the source of the psychological discomfort. It is establishing a stable connection between the patient and the analyst (Bishop, 1989). 2. Discuss Bion’s Model as it relates to psychological development and psychotherapeutic process. What correlates do you find in the work of Freud and Kohut? Initially, Bion’s interpretations of the subconscious mind gravitate toward the idea that thoughts precede thinking. He believes that people have existing preconceptions about the environment and their realizations. When these two factors meet, it serves as a basis for thinking (Bishop, 1989). Bion postulates that each person possesses an inclination to be psychotic (PPP), though it is very much different from being in a state of psychosis. For Bion, it involves a set of process in which sufficient trauma activates the reversion of PPP, enabling one to experience such a state. It is fueled by the death instinct that affects the instinctual drive to kill and the ability to think and feel (Bishop, 1989). Feelings and thoughts are processed by the patient as a separate entity from him or her; therefore, the psychotic part emerges as a detached state that breaks the linkages between thoughts and feelings. As a result, destructive impulses, intolerant frustrations, hatred and irritability occur within the patient, rendering narcissistic love into sadism (Bishop, 1989). The patient experiencing this kind of state lives in a state of persecution through the creation of bizarre objects or hallucinations. This part of the personality relies on removing any negative thought-process through projective identification. Most often, projective identification refers to the pathological element of execution but under normal circumstances, it is a mode of interpersonal communications that permits the patient to express his or her feelings for the analyst to make sense of them. Such frightening expressions of the patient create a digestible container in the analyst who accepts the projected reality (Bishop, 1989). The analyst then interjects such expressions or beta elements surrounding the projection. The analyst needs to acknowledge how frightening the projection is and respond to it appropriately. Â  This process is known as alpha function, which simply associates itself from the feeding ritual of birds. The parent bird feeds the baby by taking the worm and digesting it through the creation of bite-size pieces. When the digestion is achieved, the parent bird regurgitates it in the mouth of the baby bird in order to help the baby bird digest the food. The human counterpart features the analyst as the parent bird and the patient as the baby bird. The patient projects a reality to the analyst, which in turn is emotionally digested by the analyst and offered back to the patient. The analyst needs to regress in order to process projective identification so that it coincides with what the patient has given (Bishop, 1989). If the beta element returned by the therapist is unstable, the patient will assume that the therapist is of no help as he or she could not comprehend the situation. This leads the patient to feel misunderstood and alone. From this, the patient starts to project a more violent attitude toward the analyst. The outcome may lead to psychosis if the patient is unable to find another container on which to project the beta elements. The analyst must be able to reframe the beta elements in order to provide the big picture to the patient (Bishop, 1989). With regard to Kohut and Freud, both place special emphasis on narcissism. Kohut identifies narcissism as a way of rejection by discarding oneself into another’s experience through empathy. It is the primary therapeutic tool that does not connote affect or emotional attitude. The affect is only experienced once the analyst finally comprehends the patient’s circumstance (Curtis, 2008). While Freud may have discussed how an individual relates to his or her being as an object and creates conflict within if disappointments occur, separating it from the line of development, Kohut believes that the narcissistic line is a long-term process. People take what they can from their environment all throughout their lives, which is what fuels narcissism (Curtis, 2008). The transference in Kohut’s explanation takes place in the selfobject relationship which provides a mirroring positive response to the patient that is in dire need of it. It is the proliferation of affirmation, appreciativeness, and fulfillment of purpose, which supports narcissism in its most positive sense. The function of this is to supply the emotional deficit that is lacking in the environment of the patient (Curtis, 2008). One of the major changes that have occurred from traditional psychoanalysis is the introduction of selfobject as a counterpart of the projective identification of Klein/Freud. It sets up primary emotional connections that aid in psychological development. The process is not concerned with the outside notions of the self but of the inner projections that manifests itself through deficits (Curtis, 2008). Another modification concerns the predisposition of the analyst of the past to take things from an objective perspective to a subjective experience. This view intercepts the existing relationship of the analyst-patient into one unit which also encourages counter-transference on the part of the analyst (Curtis, 2008). Psychotherapy involves the examination of a patient’s long history and the fragments of mal-attunments that affects his or her sense of self. The role of the analyst is to assist the patient in re-establishing the nuclear self and assesses realistically the positive side of the patient’s psyche. This is the only way for the patient to willingly internalize the deficits through optimal failures. Failure is essential to the growth of an individual since it helps develop perseverance and maintain a healthy ego. Psychotherapy helps in the process of arriving at the selfobject needs of patient through the awareness of the existing deficits and responding empathically to it (Curtis 2008). References: Bishop, A. (1989). Classical psychoanalytic technique. In R. Langs (Ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Curtis, R.C. (2008). Desire, Self, Mind, and the Psychotherapies: Unifying Psychological Science and Psychoanalysis (The New Imago). (1st ed.). New York: Jason Aronson.